Exploring gender constraints in entrepreneurial opportunities for women in Pakistan
Keywords:
women's entrepreneurship, glass ceiling theory, gender inequality, sociocultural barriers, institutional barriers
Abstract
This qualitative research paper examines the experiences of women entrepreneurs in Pakistan through the lens of the glass ceiling theory. Drawing on interviews with women entrepreneurs as well as expert perspectives, the study explores entrenched socio-cultural, institutional, and financial barriers that restrict women’s access to entrepreneurial opportunities. Beyond these visible constraints, the analysis introduces and conceptualizes a critical yet overlooked dimension of the glass ceiling: the knowledge ceiling. This refers to the information asymmetry and limited entrepreneurial literacy that prevent women from accessing, understanding, and utilizing available business support, financial schemes, and legal frameworks. The findings reveal that the knowledge ceiling reinforces gender inequality by reducing women’s autonomy, hindering business growth, and perpetuating dependency on male intermediaries. Despite these challenges, the study highlights the resilience and adaptive strategies women employ to navigate restrictive systems. The recommendations emphasize dismantling both visible and invisible ceilings through strengthened institutional communication, targeted capacity-building, and inclusive support structures to foster women’s empowerment, inclusive development, and sustainable poverty alleviation in Pakistan.
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References
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Bianco, M. E., Lombe, M., & Bolis, M. (2017). Challenging gender norms and practices through women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 9(4), 338–358. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-10-2017-0060
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Bustos, E. O. (2022). The Effect of Organizational Reputation on Public Employees’ Retention: How to Win the “War for Talent” in Constitutional Autonomous Agencies in Mexico. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 43(3), 486–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X221130973
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Kaciak, E., & Welsh, D. H. B. (2020). Women entrepreneurs and work–life interface: The impact of sustainable economies on success. Journal of Business Research, 112, 281–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.11.073
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Khan, R. U., Salamzadeh, Y., Shah, S. Z. A., & Hussain, M. (2021). Factors affecting women entrepreneurs’ success: a study of small- and medium-sized enterprises in emerging market of Pakistan. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 10(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-021-00145-9
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Li, C., Qalati, S. A., & Ahmed, N. (2019). Impact of gender specific causes on women entrepreneurship: An opportunity structure for entrepreneurial women in rural areas. Journal of Entrepreneurship: Research & Practice, 2019, 632495. https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access/impact-of-genderspecific-causes-on-women-entrepreneurship-an-opportunity-structure-for-entrepreneurial-women-in-rural-ar.pdf
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Al-Boinin, H., Zaghouani, W., & Vatanasakdakul, S. N. (2021). Women Micro-Entrepreneurs in Qatar: Motivation, Challenges, and Social Media Opportunities. 2021 8th International Conference on Behavioral and Social Computing (BESC), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/BESC53957.2021.9635560
Alexandre, L., & Kharabsheh, R. (2019). The evolution of female entrepreneurship in the Gulf Cooperation Council: the case of Bahrain. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 11(4), 390–407. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-02-2019-0041
Annie Stephen, & Shashi Kumar M. (2018). A study on the glass ceiling effect on women at workplace. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323627869_A_STUDY_ON_THE_GLASS_CEILING_EFFECT_ON_WOMEN_AT_WORKPLACE
Babic, A., & Hansez, I. (2021). The Glass Ceiling for Women Managers: Antecedents and Consequences for Work-Family Interface and Well-Being at Work. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 618250. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.618250
Bianco, M. E., Lombe, M., & Bolis, M. (2017). Challenging gender norms and practices through women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 9(4), 338–358. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-10-2017-0060
Burt, R. S. (2019). The networks and success of female entrepreneurs in China. Social Networks, 58, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2019.01.003
Bustos, E. O. (2022). The Effect of Organizational Reputation on Public Employees’ Retention: How to Win the “War for Talent” in Constitutional Autonomous Agencies in Mexico. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 43(3), 486–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X221130973
Chhabra, M., G. R., H. R., & H. S. (2020). An exploratory study of cognitive, social and normative dimensions of female entrepreneurship within transition economies: Evidence from India and Vietnam. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences (PJCSS), 14(2), 568-595.
Corrêa, V. S., Lima, R. M. de, Brito, F. R. da S., Machado, M. C., & Nassif, V. M. J. (2022). Female entrepreneurship in emerging and developing countries: a systematic review of practical and policy implications and suggestions for new studies. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 15(5), 1013-1038. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-04-2022-0115
Datta, P. B., & Gailey, R. (2012). Empowering Women through Social Entrepreneurship: Case Study of a Women’s Cooperative in India. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 569–587. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00505.x
Global Gender Gap Report. (2020). World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2020/
Global Gender Gap Report. (2021). World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021/
Global Gender Gap Report 2022. (2022). World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2022/
Global Gender Gap Report 2023. (2023). World Economic Forum. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2023.pdf
Gul, R., W. C., & Khan, B. U. (2021). Comparative study of the factors of female entrepreneurship in China and Pakistan. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 9(5), 346-361. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2021.95023
Hassan, M. ul, & N. A. (2020). Education for women entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions: The role of perceptions on gender equality and empowerment. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 23(4).
Hudson Breen, R., & Leung, A. (2020). Choosing mothering and entrepreneurship: a relational career-life process. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 12(3), 253–271. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-08-2019-0130
Huq, A., Tan, C. S. L., & Venugopal, V. (2020). How do women entrepreneurs strategize growth? An investigation using the social feminist theory lens. Journal of Small Business Management, 58(2), 259–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472778.2019.1659679
Jamali, D. (2009). Constraints and opportunities facing women entrepreneurs in developing countries. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 24(4), 232–251. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542410910961532
Kaciak, E., & Welsh, D. H. B. (2020). Women entrepreneurs and work–life interface: The impact of sustainable economies on success. Journal of Business Research, 112, 281–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.11.073
Khan, M. S. (2020). Women’s entrepreneurship and social capital: Exploring the link between the domestic sphere and the marketplace in Pakistan. Strategic Change, 29(3), 375–387. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsc.2336
Khan, R. U., Salamzadeh, Y., Shah, S. Z. A., & Hussain, M. (2021). Factors affecting women entrepreneurs’ success: a study of small- and medium-sized enterprises in emerging market of Pakistan. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 10(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-021-00145-9
Khan, S., Yunis, M. S., & Abdullah, F. (2019). A Fresh Perspective on Female Entrepreneurship: An Insight from Pakistan. Global Social Sciences Review, IV(III), 318–325. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2019(IV-III).41
Khosravipour, B., Tahmasbi, M., & Baradaran, M. (2021). Investigating the Rural Women’s Motivations for Establishing Agriculture-based Micro-Enterprises in Gilan and Mazandaran Provinces. Iranian Agricultural Extension and Education Journal, 16(2), 77–87.
Khursheed, A., Fatima, M., Mustafa, F., Lodhi, R. N., & Akhtar, A. (2021). An Empirical Analysis of the Factors Influencing Social Entrepreneurship: A Gendered Approach. Cuadernos de Gestión, 21(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.5295/cdg.201320ak
Lall, M. (2022). Challenges faced by women entrepreneurs in rural sector for establishing business. International Journal of Research in Engineering, Science and Management, 5(3), 1-5.
Li, C., Qalati, S. A., & Ahmed, N. (2019). Impact of gender specific causes on women entrepreneurship: An opportunity structure for entrepreneurial women in rural areas. Journal of Entrepreneurship: Research & Practice, 2019, 632495. https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access/impact-of-genderspecific-causes-on-women-entrepreneurship-an-opportunity-structure-for-entrepreneurial-women-in-rural-ar.pdf
Loden, M. (1985). Implementing Diversity (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Marsh, D., & Sharman, J. C. (2009). Policy diffusion and policy transfer. Policy Studies, 30(3), 269–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442870902863851
Lockert, M. (2022, March 10). Understanding what the glass ceiling is and how it affects women in the workplace. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/personal-finance/glass-ceiling
Memon, A. (2020). Analyzing the entrepreneurial ecosystem for women entrepreneurs: A study of rural Jamshoro, Pakistan. Indian Journal of Commerce & Management Studies, XI(3), 45-55. https://doi.org/10.18843/ijcms/v11i3/05
Memon, S. B., & Seaman, C. (2021). Empowering Women through Microfinance Banks in Rural Areas of Pakistan. In The Emerald Handbook of Women and Entrepreneurship in Developing Economies (pp. 391–408). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80071-326-020211020
Moorthy, K., Salleh, N. M. Z. N., Ting, L. C., Ling, L. P., Min Yeng, D., Jia Ning, L., Jer Sin, L., & Pui Mun, L. (2022). Gender Inequality Affecting Women’s Career Progression in Malaysia. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 23(1), 20-37. https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2706&context=jiws
Mustafa, F., Khursheed, A., Fatima, M., & Rao, M. (2021). Exploring the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on women entrepreneurs in Pakistan. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 13(2), 187–203. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-09-2020-0149
Mutero, J., & Chummun, B. Z. (2022). Development of a framework for entrepreneur’s individual characteristics required to successfully run a woman owed SME foundry in South Africa. Gender and Behaviour, 20(2), 19807-19821. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/gab/article/view/229935
Nasir, M., I. R., & Akhtar, Ch. S. (2019). Factors Affecting Growth of Women Entrepreneurs in Pakistan. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Business Innovation, 6(1), 56-70. https://doi.org/10.5296/jebi.v6i1.14456
Nishat, M., & Nadeem, T. (2016). Factors explaining the risk attitude towards entrepreneurship in Pakistan: An exploratory analysis. The Pakistan Development Review, 55(4I-II), 715–723. https://doi.org/10.30541/v55i4i-iipp.715-723
Noor, S., I., F. M., & Nor, L. M. (2021). Women Empowerment Through Women Entrepreneurship: A Comparison Between Women Entrepreneurs and Fulltime Housewife in Pakistan. Iranian Journal of Management Studies (IJMS), 14(4), 787-807. https://ijms.ut.ac.ir/article_77719_104b81982f9626fd6dd539521fe67c60.pdf
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (2021). Pakistan Labour Force Survey 2020-21. Government of Pakistan. https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/labour_force/publications/lfs2020_21/LFS_2020-21_Report.pdf
Panda, S. (2018). Constraints faced by women entrepreneurs in developing countries: review and ranking. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 33(4), 315–331. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-01-2017-0003
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice (4th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Debroux, P. (2010). Female Entrepreneurship in East and South-East Asia (1st ed.). Chandos Publishing. Qureshi, J. A., Memon, S. B., & Seaman, C. (2021). Women entrepreneurial leaders as harbingers of economic growth: evidences from an emerging market of South Asia. 3C Empresa. Investigación y Pensamiento Crítico, 10(3), 137–169. https://doi.org/10.17993/3cemp.2021.100347.137-169
Rehman, S., & Azam Roomi, M. (2012). Gender and work-life balance: a phenomenological study of women entrepreneurs in Pakistan. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 19(2), 209–228. https://doi.org/10.1108/14626001211223865
Sehnem, S., Sarquis, A. B., Del Prá Netto, D., Martignago, G., & da Conceição, D. A. (2020). Towards an Analysis of Frugal Innovation: An Important Way to Achieve Sustainability. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Business Excellence (Vol. 14, pp. 211–224). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57235-8_17
Solanki, N. (2019). WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP: A PARADIGM SHIFT. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 7(1), 501–504. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.7157
State Bank of Pakistan. (2021). Banking on equality: Women’s financial inclusion in Pakistan. Karachi: State Bank of Pakistan.
Tambunan, T. (2009). Women entrepreneurship in Asian developing countries: Their development and main constraints. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, 1(2), 027-040. https://academicjournals.org/journal/JDAE/article-full-text-pdf/8F728C916002
Tara, N., Arshed, N., Aziz, O., & Yamin, M. (2020). CAN FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE MEDIATE THE TRAINING AND HUMAN CAPITAL RELATIONSHIP FOR PAKISTANI WOMEN MICRO ENTREPRENEURS? International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 10(4), 80–87. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijefi.9833
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Published
2026-03-28
How to Cite
Mughal, M. T., Shah, U. L., & Iftikhar, H. (2026). Exploring gender constraints in entrepreneurial opportunities for women in Pakistan. Interacción Y Perspectiva, 16(2), 500-520. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19358498
Section
Artículos de Investigación
